Political Sciences

Com este trabalho pretendemos analisar a validade da asserção que diz
que a ciência política tem ignorado os assuntos religiosos, no estudo dos acontecimentos políticos que marcam o mundo, em particular, desde o último quartel do século XX. Para isso, examinamos os conteúdos das publicações das revistas de ciência política de um grupo de países europeus criteriosamente selecionados. Foram escolhidos nove periódicos científicos de seis países diferentes e analisámos quase 700 publicações da disciplina. A sua classificação foi feita mediante a introdução de critérios de análise operativos que nos permitem distinguir três tipos de unidades codificadas: as primárias (religião surge destacada), secundárias (função acessória) e as não classificadas (não considerada). O nosso período de observação é entre 2010 e 2015 e aí verifica-se que, apesar de os cientistas políticos continuarem a subestimar a relevância dos assuntos religiosos e/ou de as revistas da área oferecerem pouco espaço a estes temas, o cenário não é tão negativo quanto o estado da arte denunciava.

O que é a secularização? Como se desenvolve? Como se expressa na
atualidade? Estas são algumas das questões sobre as quais nos debruçamos. Encontrando o seu gérmen na crise e queda do Império Romano do Ocidente, caminhando até à concretização da separação de poderes nas revoluções liberais e entrando no século XXI, encontramos quatro paradoxos com os quais os Estados seculares se deparam e que exigem um esforço de reflexão sobre o conceito de neutralidade, liberdade e igualdade do império secular que construíram.

This research proposal recovers and reinterprets the concept of Christian charity, because of the new significance that recently it has achieved due to the financial world crisis. This civilizational crisis, in the Catholic Church’s opinion, revalidates it, because of its ability to produce a new social ideal. Therefore, we propose a diachronic analysis, from the beginning of the Christian era to the XXI century, examining a group of primary sources, as the Holy Scriptures and the patristic texts, and the most recent studies and encyclical documents on the subject. We propose a unique and comprehensive revision of charity, questioning it through its relationships with multiple political, social or economic forces of modern societies. We will give a more accurate picture of the current validity of charity through a brief analysis of the Portuguese case study. We want to grasp how the concept of Christian charity operates in secular societies, but specially, under circumstances of social emergency due to the crisis.

Pluralism means division of loyalties, that is, an expected disagreement on strategic social matters: between values, between numerous (valuable) ways of life that embody and express different valuations on themselves and between dissimilar moral claims and interpretive perspectives. However, despite the divisiveness and sectarianism that moral pluralism can instill, it does not destroy the hope for consensus in political procedures. The constitutional model reflects, on a higher level, about the concern of the state with all people and all religions and serves to better explain the dimension of the concept of social pluralism. Its basic premise explains that we owe equal respect to all cultures, i.e., they all have something important to say about all human beings.

The social and cultural transformations occurred since the second quarter of the twentieth century had profound consequences on Catholic Church. If, on the one hand, the secularization process has forced the dislocation and reorganization of the religious factor in society – through which the world is no longer seen as an enemy to condemn and becomes perceived as a dialogue partner and as an end of evangelization itself –; on the other hand, mass media’s rapid expansion has opened new possibilities but also new challenges for the Church to spread the Gospel. In this context, Cinema acquires particular significance in the development of a right public opinion, as a tool at the service of human progress and as an element to preach the Kingdom of God proposing a New Humanity. Succinctly, Cinema becomes an epilogue of the New Evangelization.

Este livro faz um retrato denso e original da ascensão do republicanismo (1875-1908), que levará à implantação da República, através da propaganda política expressa em numerosas imagens da época (reproduzidas na obra), dirigida a uma população de quase 80% de analfabetos, e que se revelaram extremamente eficazes para a derrocada da monarquia constitucional.

The financial crisis of the late 2000s has put the object of our study – the public funding of religious denominations – at the centre of the debate between state and churches. In fact the need of rationalisation of public expenditures has led European authorities to an effort to revise the subsidy system of religion. Our research thus intends to analyse the models of public and private funding existing in the European countries of Catholic majority where the principles of separation with cooperation, churches’ hierarchy, through special laws, and religious freedom prevail. By maximizing our empirical variable we will be able to create a more comprehensive dialogue over the funding mechanisms – financial compensations, tax exemptions or tax assignation – that the States offer directly or indirectly to churches and religious denominations. The use of the comparative matrix, between Austria, Italy, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia and Spain, will make us reflect on the new challenges and trends placed in front of contemporary societies in the field of public funding.

Our research plan will focus on three key elements. One concept , the crisis; one research thread, the social doctrine of the Catholic Church on the crisis; one case study, the Portuguese Catholic Church and the practical application of theology in the face of crisis. First, we will try to comprehend our dependent variable by inserting it in a specific context (contemporary post-industrial societies) and in a specific period of time (since the late XIX century until today). Secondly, we will make it interact with some independent variables such as the financial, economic, political, cultural and anthropological framework of modern societies. Thirdly, throughout a diachronic and synchronic analysis of the Church's multiple and unexplored primary sources we will be able to observe the evolution of the phenomenon, understand its modern consequences, and to interpret the Church's proposition to overcome the crisis. Finally, in order to give greater substance to our research, we will focus on Portugal to see how, in a context of profound socioeconomic crisis, the Church has been acting with the view to promote and practice a new humanistic synthesis that places man as the aim and center of all socioeconomic life.

Our article addresses the different dimensions and the diverse shapes of contemporary secularism. Our theoretical framework derives from Alfred Stepan’s multiple secularisms perspective and Rajeev Bhargava’s context-sensitive analysis of different political, social and religious environments. In order to do it, we circumscribe our research in the relations between the Portuguese state and the churches and religious communities in the post 1974 period. By examining its democratic pattern of state-church relations, namely through the analysis of the established mechanisms of financial support, we intend to understand in which of the current models of secularism Portugal fits in. The fact that this is a contested case study, where we find a model of separation with cooperation between State and church and, consequently, a spirit of dialogue, negotiation and of enduring (re) definitions of public and symbolic space of both of them, with special emphasis on one specific religion, certainly help us to comprehend how ambiguous and pliable the boundaries of modern secularism can be.

This article examines the models of public and private funding and the concomitant administrative processes in practice in six European countries, where a specific type of secularism prevails: separation with cooperation, churches’ hierarchy, through special laws, and religious freedom. By examining the object of our study, the funding of religion, we will be able to create a more comprehensive dialogue on secularism. To that end, we propose an examination of the funding mechanisms – financial compensations, direct or indirect tax advantages or tax assignation – that the States and taxpayers offer or can offer to churches and religious denominations. The use of the comparative method, between Austria, Italy, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia and Spain, will make us think over the new challenges and trends placed in front of European contemporary societies in the field of public funding.

Europe’s ultramodernity has brought a new understanding over the concept of secularization. More sensitive to the plurality of contextual expressions of this phenomenon and to its multidimensionality, sociology of religion redefined secularization within a more comprehensive sphere, despite not entering on its empirical and factual fields of analysis. This desideratum seems to have been left to political science. Our research is thus a proposal for finer studies and clearer epistemological scrutiny on the dislocation and reinstallation of the religious. For that purpose we have selected a particular set of European countries – Austria, Italy, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia and Spain – and we have introduced certain research criteria – sociocultural, politicohistorical and legal dimensions – that will help us to ponder more carefully on the modern contours of this phenomenon. With the introduction of this specific type of analysis on secularization we hope not only to put forward an original methodological contribution, but mainly to reply to the demand for operational and measurable elements to interpret it in the light of European ultramodernity.

The revival and reinterpretation of the concept of Christian charity – our dependent variable – is important because of the new significance that, from the past few years, it has gained due to the financial world crisis. In the Church’s opinion, this crisis of civilization revalidates it because few like him offer inspiration for the erection of the new social ideal. Our research proposes a diachronic analysis, from the beginning of the Christian era to the XXI century, which will go through many of Church’s primary sources, as the Holy Scriptures and the early patristic texts, or even the most recent studies and encyclical documents over the subject. Therefore, we propose a unique and comprehensive revision of charity, questioning it through the relationship with multiple independent variables, whether political, social or economic. We will consider, albeit briefly, the Portuguese case study in order to give a more concrete face to the current validity of charity in modern and secular cultures and, more relevantly, in societies in circumstances of social emergency due to the crisis.

A recuperação e reinterpretação do conceito de caridade cristã – a nossa variável dependente – é relevante dada a renovada importância que, nos últimos anos, ele tem conquistado por causa da crise financeira mundial. Esta crise civilizacional, na opinião da Igreja católica, revalida-o, porquanto poucos como ele oferecem inspiração ao novo ideal social a construir. A nossa investigação propõe uma análise diacrónica, desde os inícios da era cristã até ao século XXI, que percorrerá inúmeras fontes primárias, como as sagradas escrituras ou os primeiros textos patrísticos, e ainda os mais recentes documentos encíclicos e estudos sobre a matéria. Assim, sugerimos uma revisão original e compreensiva da caridade, problematizando-a através da relação com as múltiplas variáveis independentes quer sejam políticas, sociais ou económicas. Chamaremos à colação, ainda que brevemente, o caso português de modo a dar expressão mais concreta à atualidade e validade do nosso objeto de estudo em sociedades secularizadas, laicas e, mais relevantemente, em situação de emergência social por causa da crise.

La recuperación y la interpretación de la caridad cristiana - nuestra variable dependiente - es relevante dada la renovada importancia en los últimos años, se ha ganado debido a la crisis financiera mundial. Esta crisis de civilización, a juicio de la Iglesia, vuelve a ella, porque pocos como él ofrecen inspiración para construir nuevo ideal social. Nuestra investigación propone un análisis diacrónico desde el comienzo de la era cristiana hasta el siglo 21, que abarcará numerosas fuentes primarias como las Sagradas Escrituras o de los primeros textos patrísticos, e incluso los últimos documentos encíclicos y estudios sobre el tema. Así que sugiero una revisión única y completa de la caridad, cuestionando a través de la relación con múltiples variables independientes ya sea político, social o económico. Llamamos en juego, aunque sea brevemente, el caso portugués con el fin de dar más expresión concreta a la realidad y la validez de nuestro objeto de estudio en las sociedades secularizadas, secular y, más relevante, en emergencia social a causa de la crisis.

A crise financeira de finais da década de 2000 colocou a nossa variável dependente – o financiamento público das confissões religiosas - no centro do debate das relações entre Estado e igrejas. De facto, a urgência de racionalização da despesa pública tem levado as autoridades europeias a um esforço de revisão dos sistemas de subsidiação do religioso. A nossa investigação pretende, portanto, analisar os modelos de subsidiação pública e privada existentes numa Europa católica particular onde imperam os princípios da laicidade com cooperação, da hierarquização de igrejas, por meio de leis especiais, e da liberdade religiosa. Através da maximização da nossa variável empírica será possível criar um diálogo com as demais variáveis independentes como as contrapartidas financeiras ou as isenções fiscais que o Estado oferece direta ou indiretamente às igrejas e confissões religiosas. Por meio da matriz comparativa, conseguiremos medir mais facilmente a intensidade da nossa variável empírica e refletir sobre os novos desafios e tendências, em matéria de financiamento público, colocados em face das sociedades contemporâneas.